Hp Analysis

Contents 1. 0 Company background2 1. 1 Introduction2 2. 0 Strategy identification3 2. 1 HP Marketing mix3 2. 1. 1Product3 2. 1. 2 Place4 2. 1. 3 Price4 2. 1. 4 Promotion4 2. 2 E-Customer Relationship Management5 2. 3 Virtual Communities5 3. 0 Environmental Analysis6 4. 0 Segmentation and targeting, differentiation and positioning7 4. 1 Market segmentation7 4. 1. 1 Demographic8 4. 1. 2 Psychographic segmentation9 4. 1. 3 Geographic segmentation9 4. 1. 4 Positioning for the future9 4. 1. 5 Future differentiation9 5. Objectives and E-marketing Strategies10 5. 1 Corporate objectives10 5. 2 E-CRM recommendations11 6. 0 Implementation and Evaluation12 6. 1 Electronic Commerce Solution integrated with SMS12 6. 2 e-Recommendation via find store searching tool14 7. 0 Conclusion16 8. 0 References17 9. 0 Appendix19 Hewlett-Packard 1. 0 Company background 1. 1 Introduction Though the company is a market leader, they are still trying everything possible to keep that consistency or even to improve more so that they can beat their competitors and satisfy their customers. To achieve this, the company is applying some business concepts which we will look into in depth to see how it is benefiting from them. The business concepts are as follow, and we will discuss them sequentially; * Strategy identification (E-marketing strategies) * Environmental Analysis * Segmentation and targeting, differentiation and positioning * Objectives and E-marketing Strategies * Implementation and evaluation 2. 0 Strategy identification 2. 1 HP Marketing mix 4Ps PROMOTION PRODUCT PLACE PRICE 2. 1. 1Product According to (Jones, 2005), Hewlett Packard unlike other companies serves everyone from customers, small and mid-sized businesses, to enterprises and public sectors with an extensive portfolio of market leading solution. Through their website (www. hp. com), they provide clear facts about their products, customers can know immediately about products information and specification, not a sales persons assumptions. For more clarification, there is a customer service where they can find out more. HP is also offering customization to meet customers wants, customers are allowed to design and see the outlook of their products before they can order. The buying process is also customised for returning buyers, making repeat purchasing more easily. On the other hand, HP is providing products support to its customer. It offers services such as; * HP Support Assistant – With HP Support Assistant, it is easy for customers to keep their PC running smoothly, optimize PC performance, automate support tasks and get assistance when they need help. * HP Total care Support – through this support, HP offers videos to customers so that they can enjoy and troubleshoot the computer, imaging and printing equipment. 2. 1. 2 Place As international trading is increasing all around the world, and trade barriers have come down, that has helped HP to introduce its products to a great extent. Hewlett Packard and its customers can easily interact via a web based platform (www. hp. com) and seal their deal online. With this website, HP can provide international customers with great deal of information, and easy ways of ordering at a very little expense. On the other hand HP Company have authorized and registered agent partners, who sell HP products on its behalf to customers, particularly to small and medium business. . 1. 3 Price When comes to pricing strategy of HP products, prices are reasonable based on the quantity and quality consumers are buying. Customers can enjoy discount and allowance pricing based on what they are buying, customers who buy in bulk are offered quantity discount. Also channel members like national and sub distributors who perform further selling are handed with functional discount To take a dvantage further more on pricing, HP use segment pricing, where household and industrial customers pay different prices for the same product as their earns are different. According to Pricing strategies: Hewlett Packard (Anon, 2009), One of the options HP is giving its consumers is pay-per-use utility pricing  which charges consumers for actual usage on a monthly basis. This technology works by measuring the percentage of utilization on each Central Processing Unit. The advantage for HP customers is that they will only pay for processing they are utilizing. They also have the option to use additional processors, therefore processing is not limited. In addition, different versions of the same products priced differently with respect to the configuration of components. . 1. 4 Promotion Hewlett Packard use different methods to promote their products to users, here are as follows; * Publics relations – â€Å"The HP Media Relations department provides journalists and editors with assistance in referencing background information of the company, it is setting up interviews with HP executives or scientists, securing press materials, and checking fac ts. † (HP newsroom, 2011) * Advertising – along with mass production of its products, HP is promoting its products via internet, including a website with videos and navigation sorted by business application. Sales promotion – through HP trade-In-frequently asked questions, HP is attempting to provide added value or motivation to consumers to stimulate sales. It is doing this by providing answers to questions which are mostly asked by customers, thus putting them in a good position to gain customer loyalty and form a strong relationship with them. 2. 2 E-Customer Relationship Management â€Å"E-CRM is a strategy used by online businesses to learn more about customers’ needs and behaviours in order to build a good relationship with them†(Romano and Fjermestad, 2002). As stated by (janjicek, n. d), records from HP customer relationship model which was built on experiences attained from CRM project engagements globally shows that the customer relationship is strengthened by relationship building tactics, which are continuously measured through time. E- CRM in HP supports effective customer interaction for sales and marketing automation thus forming a strong customer relationship, which leads to acceptable customer loyalty, profitability and retention. Hp is offering the following E-CRM to its customers; customer centred services, which involve products shape and customization, and value added services, which includes online training and education. This E-CRM addresses the requirements of enhancing and changing the customer experience by providing the functionality required to effectively interact with the customer, during the Sales and Marketing process. HP effectively interacts with their customers by fulfilling the following: * Knowing their customer’s needs and pro-actively engage their customer. * Knowing their customer and also their conversations/interactions with HP. Is not only to build a better relationship with customers, but also to serve them effectively. * They use the knowledge gained during customer interaction to improve the interaction and relationship with the customer. 2. 3 Virtual Communities HP Enterprise Business Community- this community is for customers who have questions, as it provides answers or those customers seeking for advice. â€Å"Through Enterprise Business Community connection, the user can find information and connect with other users, share thoughts, exchange knowledge and have a chance to speak to the experts. (Hp. com, 2011) HP Virtual Community Interest Group– according to (HP BladeSystem, 2011) this community is focused on Virtual Connect, bringing the newest, ground-breaking blade interconnect technology on the market to customers. HP is keep in touch with its customer through this community, listening to what they have to say, a complaint or complement, then they give feedback on the Virtual Connect sol ution, and we will keep their customers updated on the latest improvements and tools. 3. 0 Environmental Analysis As the researcher stated earlier on, HP is a leading consumer technology company in the world, offering a range of technology tools, from digital cameras to PCs to handheld devices. However, it is important to see how the company is managing to keep peace with this fast developing of technology and able to beat its competitors. To analyse this, the researcher will use a SWOT analysis as a tool â€Å"to evaluate the overall company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It involves monitoring the external and internal marketing environment. (Kotler and Keller, 2006) A SWOT analysis will provides an overall view of HP, and the factors can be useful in detecting the extent and type of barriers to work effectiveness that might exist there. 4. 0 Segmentation and targeting, differentiation and positioning 4. 1 Market segmentation Hp as a large firm with many customers, it is catering for them based on their demographic, behaviour, geographical, psychographic. 4. 1. 1 D emographic Some of Hp products and services are divided in such a way that they meet a certain group of customers, either based on their age, occupation, income, religion or social class. A typical example is an Hp mini notebook pc which was introduced to target education market. The personal computer is more accessible to school students, both the selling price and design wise. â€Å"HP has entered the arena with the announcement of the HP 2133 Mini-Note PC, a full-function, small-format laptop PC priced from under US$500. † (McKeegan, 2008) Hp also has divided their service branch into four main areas to better serve their customers, they include: 4. 1. 2 Psychographic segmentation Hp is catering different people of different interests and values, for example youngsters who prefer stylish design, more features on entertainment as well as businessmen who are looking for favour elegant and formal design so that they can make improvement in their official tools and applications. 4. 1. 3 Geographic segmentation Hp targets their market mostly in urban areas where people can afford to buy their products and have knowledge and skill to use them. It is especially targeting big cities with class of people who live high standards lives and are seeking for the self-esteem and self-actualization levels of needs. . 1. 4 Positioning for the future HP’s sustainability strategy has already established the company as a clear thought leader in the industry, giving them an advantage that leads to first-mover opportunities and first pick of top suppliers, employees and partners. â€Å"HP will continue making different infrastructure and distribution strategies, which will further aligns its operations with emerging best practices, giving it a competitive edge, and opening new growth horizons† (Lowitt and Grimsley, 2009). Hp has also positioned itself as an environment friendly company, which through the use of technology, â€Å"they believe there is an opportunity for IT to be a significant part of the solution in providing energy efficiency, reduction of resource conservation and substitution of high carbon by low-carbon processes. † (Accenture, 2010) 4. 1. 5 Future differentiation Hp is planning to come up with a massive Touchpad which according their European chief it will become better than Apple product, iPad. In his statement reported by Reisinger (2011) he said â€Å"In the tablet world, we are going to become better than number one. We call it number one plus† â€Å"HP indicated its intentions for the tablet market in February when they make public of their touchpad. The device runs the company's WebOS operating system and comes with a 9. 7-inch display. When it hits store shelves sometime this summer, it will include the Qualcomm Snapdragon dual-core 1. 2 GHz processor and both front- and rear-facing cameras. † (Reisinger, 2011) The device also supports a new HP Touchstone Touch-to-Share proximity-based sharing feature, which allows compatible devices to instantly exchange data, media, and information. 5. 0 Objectives and E-marketing Strategies . 1 Corporate objectives Source: (HP, 2011) 5. 2 E-CRM recommendations Hp as a click and mortar company which has position its self as the best in the industry and aiming to gain its customer’s loyalty, needs to provide the best services to continue with their good relation with its customers. One of the improvements that need to be taken into account is the find store search, Hp have many physical stores all over the world, so it will be a better idea if they can implement an e-recommendation via find store search on their website so that customer can easily find the physical store nearest to where they are. That will help the company to increase the profit as some customer do not feel comfortable with buying online, but preferring to buy from a physical store. Hp can also implement the SMS tool, which will allow customers to key in their mobile number after shopping from Hp website, and then the automation message will be sent to them as part of appreciation of shopping from Hp. This tool will help Hp to serve targeted market and boost customer loyalty. 6. 0 Implementation and Evaluation 6. 1 Electronic Commerce Solution integrated with SMS Gantt chart Proposed system A buyer ECS integrated with SMS Administration desk Message sending to buyer’s mobile Clicking appreciation message Reporting buying confirmation Process buying until it is accepted Process flow The process will start when the customer process his/her buying, through the process stage, particular at filling in details stage, the customer will have to submit his/her phone number, then follow the normal stages of online buying via Hp website. As the buying has completed and accepted, the deal will confirmed with the company Electronic Commerce Solution integrated with SMS system, which will send a report alert message to the person at the administration desk. The person at the administration desk will then click the already automated message of appreciation, and then tracked by ECS system and deliver to the targeted customer’s mobile number. Evaluation To ensure the effectiveness of this e-CRM, HP will look at the loyalty of the customer, for example, if the customers return again to buy from the company, it will convince that he/she is happy with the service and attention he/she was given last time, thus he/she is encouraged to come again. On the other hand, HP can do primary research, which will include survey and questionnaire about this project. Through those methods of data gathering, the company will able to know exactly what the customers feel about the service. 6. 2 e-Recommendation via find store searching tool Gantt chart Proposed system Customers Searching tool Locations database Search by selecting/ type in location name Checking searched information from the database Not available Found Process flow Customers who want to visit the nearest store to their locations will able to search by using their state name as a target; they will either select their state or type in the name if it is not available in the drop down menu. The searching tool will then check the stores available from the locations database, if there is no stores in that area, the customer will receive a notification, but if there are stores available, the customer will be provide with relevant information to reach that store, e. g. directions. Evaluation To consider this e-CRM as a success, HP will judge it by number of clicks done by customers, if they are more clicks being done by customers; it means that the system is considered as helpful by customers. Also they research can be carried out at HP physical stores, asking customers about how did they managed to reach the place, if most answers will emphasize that is through a store find search from the website, then the system will be considered as a success and beneficial to the company. Conclusion HP is a large company, which according to the research put its customers first in whatever they are doing. Their main success in the industry has led by good customer service and relationship. The company still have a strong desire to satisfy their customers even more, they always coming up with new ideas to match customers’ demands and needs. But on the other hand, even though the company is doing well in the market, I strongly feel that their website is not user friendly. As a customer and a researcher, I found it hard to interact with their website; it has too much link and a bit confusing. Word count: 2552 References Books 1. Dave Chaffey, Richard Mayer, Kevin Johnston, Fiona Ellis-Chadwick, 2003, Internet Marketing: Strategy, Implementation and Practice, 2nd ed. Pearson Education Limited, England, pp 7 2. Armstrong, G. and Kotler, P. , 2009. Marketing: An Introduction, 9th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, United states of America, pp 80 3. Kotler, P. and Keller, K, L. 2006. Marketing Management, 12th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, United States of America, pp 50 Internet Resources 1. Ken Jones, 2005, CMA helps Hewlett Packard Implement Solutions Marketing Strategy in Government, available at ;http://www. cmai. com/Newsletter/HPCaseStudy. pdf; last accessed on the 25 May 2011 2. (Anon, 2009) Pricing strategies: Hewlett Packard, available at ;http://arianagoldstein. blogspot. com/2009/04/pricing-strategies-hewlett-packard. html; last accessed on the 27 May 2011 3. Rose janjicek, n. d, CRM architecture for enterprise relationship marketing in the new millennium, available at ;http://h20338. ww2. hp. com/enterprise/downloads/CRMArchitecture_Whitepaper_HPC. pdf;last accessed on the 29 May 2011 4. Accenture, 2010, Hewlett-Packard: Sustainability as a Competitive Advantage, available at ;https://microsite. accenture. com/sustainability/Documents/HewlettPackard_Sustainability_as_a_Competitive_Advantage. pdf; last accessed on the 30 May 2011 5. Romano, N. C. , and Fjermestad, J. , â€Å"Electronic Customer Relationship Management: An Assessment of Research,† International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6, 2 (2002),pp 61-113 6. HP BladeSystem, 2011, where the worldwide HP blade community meets, available at ;http://h18000. ww1. hp. com/products/blades/components/bladeconnect. html; last accessed on the 30 M ay 2011 7. Noel McKeegan, 2008, HP targets education market with new Mini-notebook PC, available at ;http://www. gizmag. com/hp-targets-education-market-with-new-mini-notebook-pc/9140/; last accessed on the 4 June 2011 8. Eric M. Lowitt and Jim Grimsley, 2009, Hewlett-Packard: Sustainability as a Competitive Advantage, available at ;http://www. hp. com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/commitment/accenturestudy. pdf; last accessed on the 4th June 2011 9. HP, 2011, HP Corporate Objectives and Shared Values, available at http://www8. p. com/us/en/hp-information/about-hp/corporate-objectives. html last accessed on the 4th June 2011 10. HP newsroom, 2011, Contact HP media relations, available at ;http://www. hp. com/hpinfo/newsroom/media. html; last accessed on the 11 June 2011 11. Raman, M. , 2011, International Business Times: Tablet Shootout: Apple's iPad 2 Vs HP's TouchPad, available at ;http://www. ibtimes. com/articles/118866/20110304/ipad-2-touchpad-apple-hp-xoom-motorola-ipho ne-tablets-pc-steve-jobs-samsung-galaxy-tab-rim-playbook. htm; last accessed on the 16th June 2011 Appendix Virtual communities HP on twitter – provides authorized news and any updates from HP official news. New users are allowed to sign up, while those who have accounts already they just need to sign in so that they can follow and have their say on updates and official news. Through this community, HP is able to connect and inform its customers, thus forming a good relationship. * HP on facebook – with this community, users who have facebook accounts and have liked the HP page on facebook, are able to find out what is happening around HP, view photos and learn what HP is doing to help them live green. Also users are allowed to post their feedback on HP’s profile, and HP is using them to analyse their contribution to the society and make improvements where necessary. The comparison between Apple's iPad 2 and HP's TouchPad Specifications| iPad 2| HP TouchPad| OS| iOS 4. 3| WebOS 3. 0| Network| Wi-Fi only, GSM (AT;T), CDMA (Verizon)| GSM| Screen Size| 9. 7-inch| 9. 7-inch| Resolution| 1024Ãâ€"768| 1024Ãâ€"768| Processor| Apple A5 dual core 1 GHz| Qualcomm Snapdragon dual core APQ8060 1. 2 GHz| Storage| 16GB/32GB/64GB| 16GB/32GB| RAM| N/A| 1GB| Rear Camera| 720p| None| Front Camera| VGA| 1. 3mp| Video Recording| 720p| N/A| Adobe Flash Support| No| Yes| Wi-Fi| 802. 11 a/b/g/n| 802. 11b/g/n with WPA, WPA2, WEP, 802. 1X authentication| Sensors| Light, Accelerometer, compass, gyroscope| Light, Accelerometer, compass, gyroscope| Bluetooth| 2. 1+EDR| 2. 1+EDR| TV Out| 1080p, HDMI, VGA| No| Weight| 1. 33 pounds| 1. 6 pounds| Battery| 25 watt hour| 6,300 mAh Battery| Price| Wi-FI only version starts at $499| N/A| Availability| March 11, 2011 (US), March 25 Worldwide| Summer| Source: (Raman, 2011)

Project Management E-Mail Essay

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Gasland by Josh Fox - Movie Review Example The thesis of the documentary seeks to inform the audience about the environmental effects and human effects from natural gas drilling. Indeed, the documentary uses dark humor to discuss a detailed analysis of the broader effects of the controversial extraction method, hydraulic fracturing, or fracking that is rampant across the globe. The documentary seeks to negate the assertion that natural gas is a clean and safe alternative to oil. In addition, the documentary confirms that the fracked wells leak more often thus polluting the environment through water and air pollution, which endangers the environment and disturbs families (Fox Film). Rhetorical (persuasive) Strategies in the Documentary Notably, the documentary uses the three persuasive strategies, which include logos, pathos, and ethos. Moreover, the documentary uses rhetorical devices to apply the persuasive strategies to support the argument. In this context, I will focus on sound, speech, and visual images in discussing the rhetorical (persuasive) strategies in the documentary... The speaker further says that â€Å"a great deal of faith in people that we wouldn’t succumb to frenzy, or rage, or greed; that we’d figure out a solution without destroying the things that we love (Fox Film).† This comes in a convincing tone that asserts respect for the environment. More so, Josh Fox says that the proposal from the natural gas company to lease Fox’s family land for purposes of drilling natural gas generated a debate in the family. Indeed, Fox’s father initially had the thought of leasing the land for the $100,000 offer (Fox Film). On the other hand, Fox tells his father, ‘I think I have to look into this, so give me some time to go ahead and get the facts.† Indeed, even though, Fox said this in a commanding voice, Fox’s father allowed him to seek for facts and evidence regarding the effects of hydraulic fracturing on the community neighboring the drilling site. In fact, Josh Fox is the dominant narrator in the do cumentary where he gives a personal story. He engaged in interviews, discussions, and debates seeking to unearth the possible environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing. As a result, the film offers facts and evidence in spoken form through the interviews. We can actually experience Josh Fox talking with residents suffering from chronic health ailments that relate to air pollution and water contamination from the drilling of the natural gas using the hydraulic fracturing (Fox Film). This offers facts and evidence in spoken form through the discussions. More so, the residents report on their quest for justice where they visited the court to get an injunction seeking damages from the natural gas companies.  Ã‚  

Discuss the importance of Recruitment and selection of sales Essay

Discuss the importance of Recruitment and selection of sales people.What are some of the problems associated with selecting the - Essay Example It incorporates the search for persons who can hold positions that are required by a particular organization. In the practise of recruitment and selection, there is a huge difference between order taking and order getting positions in sales. Thus, this situation gives a difference in the demand of these two jobs. Various aspect of marketing plays a major role in focusing of the enterprise. Enterprise has the mandate to pick on the best strategy for covering a target market. The role of sales managers in an organization is ensuring that they have organized the sales force to enable all necessary tasks to be executed2. Large organizations have a diverse sales force in accordance to different selling tasks, and the target market they intend to serve. With indispensability, every organization should hire good and well qualified persons to occupy the sales’ force. Some large organizations are more careful to a point of updating the list of possible qualified candidates for such pos itions. For instance, the organizations may schedule candidates for multiple interviews to ensure that there are thorough background checks, and psychological tests, which are important in sales. Never the less, organizations use diverse method of evaluating the capability of potential sales persons. Some of the most frequently used methods include a personal interview, reference checks and background information that is mostly provided on application blanks. Recruitment of sales persons is the most delicate thing that is carried out by organizations in the present day. In essence, the evaluation techniques that are used are both psychological and non psychological. These selection methods can be evaluated in numerous ways such as validity, impartiality, scope usage and cost3. Validity is the statistical correlation level between the test score and the performance of employees such as satisfaction and commitment with reference to the position that the employee has been granted. Impa rtiality entails the capability to evaluate employees in an objective manner without discrimination in terms of sex, ethnicity religion among others. The scope of usage indicates the most potential ways of applying for various opportunities on both the specific group of tasks, and the wide array of opportunities. Although these methods are said to be very expensive, organizations are recommended to frequently use them in hiring the right employees for the right positions4. However, before the selection of the sale force is done, it is worth noting that the positions to be filled should be first analysed on the basis of the job description, hiring process and company trainings. Essential abilities for successful sales people, over and above, the techniques that are used to identify them should be determined. The methods of selection ought to test on the strongest and the weakest performing sales persons by detecting the personality qualities, skilfulness, and abilities that are likel y to lead into success or failure of the sales person. Moreover, sales persons should undergo training on the products the specific organization markets, and the effective sales presentation that required in sales. Although a job description tells more of what is expected from the sales team, the practical part of it is more important as the work basically entails going to the target market to seek sales5. Sales training which is part of selection should be modified depending on the skills and

INTERPRETING CRIME AND CRIMINALS SC2034C Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

INTERPRETING CRIME AND CRIMINALS SC2034C - Essay Example I used textual /narrative analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of the programs and the interview. It has been found out the vital successes have been obtained from the current methods of addressing crime prevention in Southwark, which could serve as reference for other related researches and studies. My report focuses on teenage anti-social behaviour and the effectiveness of the current methods such as the Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) and the Karrot Project implemented by the local council in cooperation with the police of Southwark. Teenage anti-social behaviour covers a variety and a number of deviant acts that cause disturbance to other people within a certain jurisdiction. Because of the relatively significant number of teens in Southwark and their propensity to exercise anti-social behaviour, such focus is important to study. It has been a topic of interest primarily because it is a widespread reality that takes its toll on residents and other people. Hence, a lot of methods, programs and initiatives have been proposed to combat this ever-growing problem but no particular research study focuses on the effectiveness of such methods. Anti-social behaviour per se has been a topic of numerous researches and studies as this has been a worldwide reality drawing sociological , cultural and logical bases. However, the effectiveness of ASBO and other current methods to prevent anti-social behaviour have not been fully explored. Hence, I am making this report. I will use a qualitative research approach to discuss teenage anti-social behaviour and evaluate the current methods and programs undertaken by the locality of Southwark to address this. I will also use a case study on teenage anti-social behaviour together with my interview with Sergeant Levick, Coordinator of Anti-social behaviour of Southwark Police to evaluate the ASBO and the Karrot Project in light of the use of narrative

Islam in the modern world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Islam in the modern world - Essay Example In the words of Groff & Smoker (1996), â€Å"fundamentalism or religious extremism or fanaticism--when religions claim their version of religion is the only one--are seen as an extreme form of the socially-learned aspect of religion and one not conducive to creating world peace†. In most of the instances, these religious teachings are observed to be quite traditional and introduced in the early centuries. Since then, these religions have been strongly influenced with the inclusion of various modern thinking in the daily lifestyle of human beings as well as revolutions which at times deliberately contradicted the initially developed religious beliefs (Ahmad & Reifeld, 2004). From a materialistic point of view, it can be affirmed that with changes taking place amid the human society in the due course of action, religious beliefs have been and is most likely to be contradicted repeatedly (Calma & Gershevitch, 2009). Contradictions in Islam were also quite apparent in its chronolo gical practices. It has often been argued that during the introductory phase of Islam, Christianity and Hinduism faced various disadvantageous dilemmas in comparison to Islamism. However, with the passing time, Islamism has been repeatedly contradicted with regards to the religious definition that it provides for human rights and equality, especially in relation to gender (Hitchens, 2009; Abdel-Latif, 2008). The so called ongoing Egyptian Revolution of 2011-12 can also be argued on with regards to the contradictory beliefs currently existing in relation to the implications of Islamism (Gad, 2011). The below discussion will thereby be focused on the contradictions currently witnessed in Islamism in the plight of the recent Egyptian Revolution of 2011. The Egyptian Revolution 2011-12 The recent Egyptian Revolution of 2011 is witnessed from various perspectives by the worldwide experts, analysts and critiques. While a few of the experts view the revolution as the aftermath of the conti nuous social and economic failings. Corruption, brutality witnessed to be practiced by the law enforcers majorly including the police, unjust implementations of political prohibitions restricting the human rights to vote freely, inflationary rates, stagnant unemployment and also the practice of inequality in terms of religion, sex and wealth distribution as well (Meguid & et. al., 2011). Others view the revolution as a new opening towards a broader concept of Islamism with the virtues of greater democracy and equality within the population introduced by the hands of the youth (Engdahl, 2011; Wahba, 2011). However, it is worth mentioning that the revolution did not take place with Islamism as its primary reason. The revolution was actually caused due to the ongoing economic, social as well as political malpractices within the economy under the veil of Islamism, to a certain extent. As stated by Claret (2011), â€Å"in a country like Egypt where nothing is conceivable without Islam o r eastern Christianity...† The early as well as the current research based on the political, economic and social processes within Egypt along with other Middle Eastern nations have often claimed religion to be in the position of a vanguard in relation to the unjust functioning of political leaders, police and other social leaders (Claret, 2011). As a matter of fact, Egypt is known to be one of the strongest believers of Islam and is thus known

Minority Discrimination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Minority Discrimination - Essay Example I, being a Muslim, have faced it to an extent that I feel depressed and its not just about me, many of US Muslims face it regularly. There is always some reason behind the opposition and discrimination against a community, country or a person. After facing such bias and disgrace from others, I was forced to find out the reasons behind it. According to my research, I think that most of the population of US is against Muslims because of the wrongdoings of a portion of our community. They humiliate us and call us "terrorists" regardless of the fact that we're innocent and have not taken part in any such action. The discrimination that Muslims face is not limited to US but there is wide range of countries where Muslims face and bear it. The mayor of our region is of Asian Descent; hence we have relatively less troubles in coping up with our day to day life. People of our community strictly follow the rules made by the mayor, presented by the civilization or set by the religion. They follow the same way of dressing, language, cultural values and ethical principles. The people of our community are tied strongly in a loop where their brotherhood, peace, love and respect do not allow them to take any action against each other. I personally think that we are living a life of heaven in this age of discrimination and conflicts. ... However, one cannot deny the fact that, despite of the uphill struggle, people suffer. The reason of discrimination is basically the revenge of others who treat or treated us badly. This discrimination is, however, not conducted by our mayor but other officials. The issue of Police Officer Susan L. Purtee can be taken as an example. Officer Purtee and her sister, Barbara Gordon-Bell, were accused of making videos which were against Jews, Cubans, Blacks and a few other nations. They tried to convey a message that all the illegal immigrants, blacks and some other minorities are the cause of a number of social evils. This statement and humiliation was a clear-cut discrimination against minorities. The issue was raised because of the position Purtee held (Marx & Narciso, 2007). Such an action by a Police Officer, which may cause hatred, uproar and discipline disorders among the public, was hard to be absorbed. However, on the other hand, Mayor goes up against those videos and the statements of Officer Purtee and her sister. He says "I am personally offended by her racist and anti-Semitic comments, and I believe our citizens should be equally offended. As Mayor, I am highly concerned that this unacceptable conduct will reflect negatively on the entire Division and the City of Columbus. Clearly, Officer Purtee is not representative of our Division's many great Officers. While we respect the right of free speech, we also demand that every Officer meets the highest standard of conduct on and off the job. In my opinion, Officer Purtee's conduct falls far below this City's expectations (Text of Mayor Coleman's letter, 2007)". This clearly shows his despise of such an act from a Government Official. Islam is a religion of peace and justice. Our community

Social responsibility Essay Example for Free

Social responsibility Essay Introduction Starbucks Coffee Corporation is a world renowned Fortune 500 company headquarter in Seattle, Washington USA. It was founded in 1971 with the sole mission to bring the unique Italian coffee experience to the masses. Its CEO Howard Shultz has successfully created a company brand where customers identify its coffee to a distinctive and premium experience. Starbucks Coffee currently has over 18,000 stores worldwide across 60 countries on six continents, and with a market capitalization of over $USD 50 billion. Ranked in American Express/SAP survey as 49 of the Top 100 global retailers, and consistently on the list as one of the best global corporations to work in Forbes magazine, the Starbucks brand is synonymous with success (Starbucks: Global Coffee Giant Has New Growth Plans. 2013). Starbucks Coffee Corporation’s Stewardship in how it conduct Business Starbucks leadership knew that its frontline workforce, or its retail store workers such as baristas, shift managers, and store managers are at the heart to success for the company. Treating the frontline workers well will ensure happy employees who will in turn safeguard the image and values that the company stand for, which keep customers loyal to the brand. Working in the retail sector typically comprise of poor benefits, non-existent or poor healthcare, and low pay. However, Starbucks is one of the very few retail companies that provide health benefits to all its employees referred to ‘partners’ at the full time and part time level. Its partners are offered competitive base pay, equity in the company in the form of Bean Stock, 401(K) saving plan with employer matching, tuition reimbursement, paid vacation, short-term  disability, and product discounts. In the current sluggish economy, companies that used to offer benefits to part time employees have pared back such as Walmart (7 Companies Offering Health Care to Part-Time Workers. 2011), while Starbucks remain committed to its employees and continue to provide benefits to all its workers. Taking care of its employees or partners isn’t its only practice of stewardship. It exist across the entire corporation from business practices, supply chain, and investments. Starbucks’ company mission statement explain what it is all about: Our mission: to inspire and nurture the human spirit-one person, one cup and one neighborhood at a time. Social responsibility is at the core of its mission statement and touches: 1. Environmental considerations and recommendations (planet) 2. Ethical leadership considerations and recommendations (people) 3. Organizational viability considerations and recommendations (profitability) Starbucks Corporation already has a well-executed strategy for social responsibility, in this paper I will discuss its current strategy and introduce a new direction, and to make it better through transformation. Starbuck’s current social responsibility strategy is based on the following themes: 1) Community 2) Ethical Sourcing 3) Environment Source: http://www.starbucks.com/responsibility In this section I will explain how each of the three focus are associated to the three social responsibilities of a) planet b) people c) profitability. Starbucks’ Community (People) What Starbucks is Currently Doing Starbucks has a close involvement with the communities that its retail coffee stores are located. Starbucks leadership is committed to helping out the communities that its stores are located. It established an initiative to get its employees involved with making their communities better. A month out of  every year it conducts a program called the Global Month of Service initiative, where Starbucks employees lead community service projects focus on the individual needs of the neighborhood where they live and work. Since the program’s inception in 2011, volunteer hours have increased 40% more than the year before, with a goal of 1 million hours in 2015. What It Should Do Next Hitting 1 million volunteer hours in one month by 2015 seems quite a feat, however when you factor the total Starbucks 150,000 global employees, the contribution of hours is not so significant. That equates to roughly 6.7 hours per employee in a month timeframe. Starbucks leaders should make volunteering mandatory for all its employees and a criteria in the employee’s annual performance review. By linking the program to an employee’s annual performance it would be more of an incentive for people to give more hours, than to think that it is purely voluntary. If during the Global Month of Service every employee can volunteer 2 hours every week for a total of 8 hours per month, at an employee base of 150,000 that means 1.2 million hours can be given. Starbuck’s Ethical Sourcing (Profitability) What Starbucks is Currently Doing Starbucks’ is known for fair practices in everything that carry its brand. It spans from the merchandising of items carried in its retail stores, furniture used by its customers, to the coffee beans it uses in its lattes. Starbucks has integrated into its core business practices social responsibility known as ethical sourcing. Ethical sourcing is being concerned for the well-being of every worker from the top to bottom supply chain that produce any product that has the Starbucks logo. It is to insure that all companies sourced by Starbucks involved with creating its products, provide to their workers a fair-livable wage, sustainable work hours, and adhere to the highest standards of labor practices set forth by Starbucks. The sourcing of its product has a direct impact to Starbucks’ bottom line and profits. However profit margins does not take precedence over social responsibility, compromised or side stepped in the constant pursuits for  corporate profits. Case in Po int: In 2012 Starbucks assessed 128 factories and found that 36 of them failed its zero-tolerance standards. Even though its approach was to work with suppliers to correct the issues, it halted business until adequate resolution were implemented. While it was able to implement improvement plans with almost half of these factories, it stopped working with 15 factories that didn’t rectify the issues. Since the program started in 2006, it engaged with more than 500 factory assessments and worked with more than 70 factories on programs to improve standards. Aside from internal practices, Starbucks is a member of the Global Social Compliance Program, and promoting externally the social responsibility of ethical sourcing best practices to other corporations. To lead and facilitate business-driven efforts to improve environmental and working conditions in the global supply chain of companies. To set itself has a model for other corporations to follow. Source: http://www.gscpnet.com/structure-a-governance/task-force.html What It Should Do Next Starbucks has implemented the practice of ethical sourcing. It is showing to other corporations the morality of how to be responsible, however the Global Social Compliance program is voluntary. My suggestion is for Starbucks to take the idea of Global Social Compliance to the next level in two stages, with the ultimate goal to create a global consortium that has one set standard to enforce ethical policies across all global industries: 1) Control Low Level global supply chain entities Many global corporations utilize the same entities or sources for manufacturing and raw resources. The first strategy is to onboard these entities by granting them financial incentives, subsidies, and longer contracts if they join the Global Social Compliance Program. The caveat is they must use the money to re-invest in themselves by improving in technology or attributes to gain competitive advantage against its competition. 2) Once competitive advantage is attained, the overall cost of the goods or services will be lower compared to competitors. This makes it highly attrative to multinationals seeking lower priced sources. This will  lead to an influx of business by multinationals towards these entities and possibly the demise of competitors, resulting in the overall reduction of players in the sector. Over time the multinationals will be so ingrained to these entities because of the lower cost associated with production and the lack of choices in pursuing other suppliers, that disjoining from them will adversely affect business. At that point, Starbucks can dictate to the entities that all multinationals that work with these entities to join a global consortium that adhere to Global Social Compliance and its policies, led and defined by Starbucks. To keep the multinationals in the consortium, business advantage strategies can be implemented such as all members openly share in the cost of development of new technologies, which can be used by all or any members to gain competitive advantage in their respective industries against competitors outside of the consortium. Or as a consortium to collectively bargain for better rates of goods or services from entities outside the consortium. Over time many companies will see the benefits of becoming a member of the consortium, than fighting against companies within the consortium. The consortium will wield substantial influence and political power as major corporations in the network span across national boundaries, and collectively use its clout to push positive global agendas. Starbuck’s Environment (Planet) What Starbucks is Currently Doing Starbucks is heavily involved in helping care for our planet. It lead by example by reducing its operating costs and increase shareholder value through energy and water efficiency, while encouraging other corporations to do the same. As a company that relies on an agricultural product (coffee beans) as its core business, and the potential to effect geological conditions in the land used to grow the product, Starbucks is committed to strategies that safeguard against land erosion and deforestation through its involvement in the Conservation International (CI) project. Starbucks’  contribution to CI is to work with farmers in major coffee growing regions of the world, to provide monetary incentives if their direct action(s) lead to the reduction of carbon and protection of the environment. Source: http://www.starbucks.com/responsibility/environment/climate-change What It Should Do Next Starbucks is helping to save planet Earth a small step at a time. However it need to elevate the effort by doing the following: 1) Establish and join forces with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Starbucks and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation are both based in Seattle Washington, less than 10 miles away from each other. Both organizations have different ideas on how to solve global issues, but share in the view that the planet is not sustainable without change. The Gates Foundation’s main driver to tackling global issues are through reducing extreme poverty and improving healthcare. The Gates foundation is the philanthropic arm of Microsoft Corporation’s co-founder Bill Gates, who is the world’s richest person. Bill Gates has endowed $USD 38.3 billion dollars to the foundation to fund global initiatives. Starbucks’ strategy to tackle global issues seem to be at the micro level compared to the Gates foundation; working with farmers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), while the Gates foundation is funding initiatives at a macro or global level. In the area of Global Health the Gates foundation’s annual funding of the program approaches the total annual budget of the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO). The Gates foundation has the political connection, prestige, and financial resources which Starbucks should leverage to further its Earth protection agendas. If Starbucks want to become a bigger player in solving the planet’s problems it need to align itself with an organization that does it full time, has the ear of the United Nation, and that is the Bill Melinda Gates foundation. Joining forces with a powerhouse such as the Gates foundation, instead of providing incentives to farmers to promote ecological friendly programs in coffee growth areas, it can develop and give to all farmers technologies that can yield better crop output and use less water and land resources. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation 4. Legal and regulatory considerations and recommendations The suggestions outlined in this paper, to transform Starbucks’ social responsibility program it need to be within the legal framework for all the countries that the program applies to. The creation of a global consortium to further its ethical sourcing objectives should be a program welcomed by many workers in third world countries who work for companies known for exploitation of its workers. Governments of these countries would welcome multinationals such as Starbucks to financially provide support to stop the exploitation. Regarding furthering its present community initiative, the compulsory of its employees to volunteer shouldn’t be outside the framework of existing laws either since many corporations also have similar practices. Lastly to increase the awareness of helping the planet, joining forces with the Bill Melinda Gates foundation is a corporation to organization relationship which is legal in any country. Citation Resource Page: Loeb,W.(2013).Starbucks: Global Coffee Giant Has New Growth Plans. Retrieved February 16, 2014, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/walterloeb/2013/01/31/starbucks-globalcoffee-giant-has-new-growth-plans/ Kim,S (2011). 7 Companies Offering Health Care to Part-Time Workers. Retrieved February 18, 2014, from http://abcnews.go.com/Business/companies-offering-health-care-benefitsperks-part-time/story?id=14805107 Starbucks Corporation Social Responsibility. (2013). Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.starbucks.com/responsibility Global Social Compliance Programme. (2013). Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.gscpnet.com/structure-a-governance/task-force.html Starbucks Corporation Climate Change Strategy. (2013). Retrieved February 21, 2014, from http://www.starbucks.com/responsibility/environment/climate-change About Bill Melinda Gates Foundation. (2013). Retrieved February 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation

Analysis of Decline and Rise of Various Business Activities in the U.K. Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Decline and Rise of Various Business Activities in the U.K. Essay In this task, I will need to decide what the core activity is in each of my two businesses and whether they are dealing with products, services or both. In the UK some of these business activities are becoming more common and others are becoming less common. I will need to find out the broad trends for these business activities and how they affect the businesses that I am investigating. The legal status of Freelance Audio Productions is an equal partnership between Martin and Nikki Rider. The company was set up in 1986, but has only been trading as Freelance Audio Productions for four years. The company doesnt make a product, the service it provides is audio production based which includes performance arts, supplying of equipment and supplying of production services and facilities. FAP falls into the category of the Tertiary Sector. There are many departments that operate within FAP, but there are two departments that control most of Freelance Audio Productions. These are Stage sound and Showbiz. Stage Sound. FAP Stage Sound has been in operation for fourteen years but has only been working under Freelance Audio Productions for the last four years. FAP Stage Sound specialises in renting out sound equipment and educating young trainees. FAP Stage Sound is a continuously growing business which is also shown in the trend of the tertiary sector. Showbiz. FAP Showbiz controls all of the private singing and dancing lessons and the Pop School. FAP Pop School is the newest addition to Freelance Audio Productions. The main target of this is to educate people, mainly children, form the ages of two upwards in the field of music and dance. Girls and boys of all ages learn to sing and dance and put together routines. Shows are then put on as large events where many tickets are sold but little profit is made. Graph showing the Tertiary sector total. (See Appendix 1) FAP and connections with the sectors. Freelance Audio Productions works under the tertiary sector in the departments of other services and education. The Stage Sound aspect of FAP comes under other services, and the private lessons and Pop School comes under education. (See Appendix 2) Freelance Audio has no direct connections with any of the other sectors, but, the other departments in the Tertiary Sector play a large part in the success or failure of FAP. Martin Rider has a community web site on the Internet, and does a lot of theatrical work. As the Internet industry is doing very well at the moment, and FAP is hoping to spread all over the UK, communications help a lot to promote this business. The best way to promote the business locally is while shows are going on. The department leisure includes theatre and public events, and locally, FAP is involved with all theatrical work and most public events. Leisure is one of the fastest growing industries in the tertiary sector which gives an indication on how well FAP should be doing. (Appendix 4) FAP can be affected by the secondary sector. The only way that FAP is affected by any other sectors is the fluctuations in manufacturing of electrical goods in the secondary sector. This can cause problems when attempting to purchase specialised equipment for shows or upgrading the current range of products. Conclusion. Although currently small, Freelance Audio Productions is growing very fast as a result of the tertiary sector departments that it is part of. Over the next few years, new contacts with other businesses in the UK will be made, and maybe other sectors will come as a part of the company. The legal status of Lantra is a charitable limited company. Lantra is owned and run by a board of directors. If Lantra goes bust or bankrupt, each director has a liability of one pound. Lantra has a very complicated range of services. Most of the services is education, training and policy work for the government. Most of the work is in the land based sector, which is to do with farming, agriculture and environmental conservation. Lantra sets the standards that the GNVQs are set upon. The GNVQs for land based studies is set by Lantra. There are three operating Companies which work under the umbrella company, Lantra. These are called, Lantra Awards, Lantra National Training Organisation and Lantra Agenda. These are explained in depth in the following text. Lantra Awards. Lantra Awards is a new organisation within the Lantra. The aim of this company is to provide an innovative and responsive awarding service. Lantra Awards assesses trainees, and if the needed standards are met, appropriate awards are rewarded to them. The awards given are recognised by the government and can help acquire a job or an apprenticeship. Lantra Agenda. Lantra Agenda training specialises in management training and consultancy services and the co-ordination of work based training. Agenda courses range from increasing personal dynamics and communication effectiveness to waste management and include a range of health, safety and quality assurance courses. Below are some of the services that Lantra Agenda Provide. Although some are training, they are referred to as a product as they are sold to external agencies also. Management training and business consultancy Business development consultancy Benchmarking Management and supervisory training Train the trainer programmes Vocational Programmes National Traineeships Modern Apprenticeships (Skillseekers in Scotland) Approves centre for N/SVQs Assessment and certification in key skills, hazardous operations and safety training and management. Lantra National Training Organisation (Lantra NTO). Lantra NTO has a wide ranging selection of activities which spans from conducting labour market research to supporting local training providers. The key role of Lantra NOT is to link government and industry. There are eleven industry groups that work in Lantra NTO. These are: agricultural crops agricultural livestock production horticulture landscaping environmental conservation game conservation fish farming agricultural and garden machinery fencing floristry professions allied to veterinary science Graph showing the Tertiary sector total. (See Appendix 1) Lantra and connections with the sectors. Lantra is a peculiar organisation as it is based in not only the tertiary sector, but the primary sector also. Lantra is primarily based in the tertiary sector as it deals with training, education, and the selling of a product, retail. Previously, Lantra was a primary sector, land based organisation. As recent trends show, the primary sector is in rapid decline (Appendix 3) so the company had to think up a new idea to save the business. This is when selling training courses as a product and the company Lantra Awards came into play. These two ideas brought Lantra into the Tertiary sector which is an overall higher earning sector (Appendix 1). This would have both increased the companies value and broadened the types of customers. If the Primary sector decreases, Lantra will be injured as the company still relies mainly on the land based agricultural departments. If the need for more farms arrives, this would be perfect for the training aspect of Lantra as the business would rocket. Conclusion. Even though Lantra is in the primary sector, which is decreasing, the departments which are in the tertiary sector provide a safety net and a higher income. I think that Awards and Agenda will take over and NTO will slowly disappear as the need for agricultural based activities is in decline.

Literature Review of Gender and Stalking

Literature Review of Gender and Stalking An Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking Research Stalking has been the subject of empirical examination for a little over 20 years. Interest in stalking both empirical and public has increased substantially within the last decade (see Figure 1).   A PsycINFO search of the first decade of stalking research yields only 74 hits. In contrast, the year 2000 marked an upswing of serious investigation with the publication of the first special issue on stalking (Frieze Davis, 2000). There were 56 publications on stalking in 2000 alone and over 600 publications on the topic published between 2000 and 2010.   The research on stalking has examined predictors of perpetration, consequences of victimization, and public perceptions of stalking. Within each of these domains, one of the lingering questions has been: what role does gender play in stalking? Accordingly, this special issue is intended to contribute to the literature by using gender as a focus point in 1) applying new theoretical perspectives to the study of stalking perpetration (Davis, Swan, Gambone, this issue; Duntley Buss, this issue), 2) extending our knowledge of women and mens (Sheridan Lyndon, this issue; Thompson, Dennison, Stewart, this issue) stalking experiences, and 3) furthering the study of perceptions of stalking (Cass Rosay, this issue; Dunlap, Hodell, Golding, Wasarhaley, this issue; Sinclair, this issue; Yanowitz Yanowitz, this issue). To place this special issue in context of the current state of knowledge on gender and stalking, we will review the state of the current research on examining the role of gender with regard to stalking victimization, perpetration, and the lay and legal perceptions of stalking. We will conclude with a summary of how each of the articles included herein contribute to our knowledge about the role of gender in stalking research. However, it is important to start with clarifying what is meant by the term â€Å"stalking.† The model federal anti-stalking law in the US legally defines stalking as â€Å"a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear† (National Criminal Justice Association Project, 1993, p. 43-44).   Legal definitions differ across US states, but they tend to have three characteristics: 1) a pattern or â€Å"course of conduct† 2) of unwanted or intrusive harassing behaviors that 3) induces fear of bodily harm or substantial emotional distress in the target (Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010). Additional terminology has been used in stalking research to discuss unwanted attention, particularly from a romantic pursuer, that does not meet the fear or â€Å"substantial† distress criteria of anti-stalking laws. Alternative labels for these unwanted behaviors engaged in during purs uit of a romantic relationship include â€Å"unwanted pursuit† (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Palarea, Cohen, Rohling, 2000), â€Å"pre-stalking† (Emerson, Ferris, Gardner, 1998), â€Å"obsessive relational intrusion† (ORI: Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2004), harassment, or unwanted â€Å"courtship persistence† (Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Whether gender differences may emerge, particularly in perpetration and victimization statistics, may depend on whether the researcher is examining â€Å"stalking† or â€Å"unwanted pursuit.†Ã‚   In fact, as will be discussed throughout this paper, much of the debate about gender differences is largely due to two variables: 1) how stalking is operationalized and 2) what sample is examined. We turn to these issues, and others, first starting with our review of the stalking victimization literature.   Note, our focus for the duration of this paper is on the dominant form of stalking; stalking that occurs within a relational context. Victims One of the questions surrounding gender differences in stalking research is whether women are more likely to be victims of stalking than men. Statistics clearly indicate that the majority of stalking cases often follows the rejection of an intimate relationship (Baum et al., 2009; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Historically, intimate aggression (e.g., domestic violence, acquaintance rape) has been perceived as synonymous with violence against women because it was believed that the majority of intimate aggression targeted women.   However, this belief that victims of intimate aggression are disproportionately female has been controversial (see Archer, 2000). Likewise, we find that the assertion that stalking victims are predominantly women is not without its controversy.   In the first US national study of stalking victimization, Tjaden and Thoennes (1998) reported that 8% of women and 1.1% of men qualify qualified as stalking victims when the definition was limited to those who are were extremely afraid. The victimization rate climbs climbed to 13% of women and 2.2% of men when somewhat afraid is was used. Thus, a gender difference was still quite apparent when fear was a criterion. In contrast, the British Crime Survey (Budd Mattinson, 2000), which did not require any experiences of fear, reported that 4% of women and 1.7% of men were victims of persistent and unwanted attention. In a more recent US national survey, Baum et al. (2009) found that more stalking victims were women than men when using the legal definition that includes victim fear. In contrast, no gender difference emerged in harassment victimization, which does not include the fear requirement. Further, all of these studies show that women are more likely to be stalked by a prior intim ate than men, who are equally likely to be stalked by acquaintances or intimates.   When focusing on unwanted pursuits, which can include stalking, in the relational contextS studies examining unwanted pursuit have to grapple with definitional issues as well as issues of sample. Studies of unwanted pursuit and ORI are primarily conducted among American college students and have often found few or small gender differences in rates of unwanted pursuit victimization. Among US college students, women and men who rejected a romantic relationship did not differ in their reports of experiencing unwanted pursuit behaviors, such as following and threats of physical assault (e.g., Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2000; Spitzberg, Nicastro, Cousins, 1998). When differences are found, they may be minimal.Overall, Spitzberg et al.s (2010) latest meta-analysis of US college students who experienced persistent pursuit found that women were 55% more likely to have been pursued than men. Comparing these statistics with national statistic s which find women 3-7 times more likely to be stalked, a difference of .55 seems minimal.   Clearly how one concludes whether someone is a victim of stalking depends not only on how one asks the question (requiring fear or not) but who one is asking (college sample vs. national sample). Yet, it seems safe to conclude that women do outnumber men when it comes to victimization rates. To Fear or Not to Fear Where consistent gender differences have been found is that women are more likely to view unwanted pursuit as threatening (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Spitzberg et al., 2010). The inclusion of fear appears to decrease prevalence rates for men, as men are less likely to report fear than are women (Bjerregaard, 2000; Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Davis, Ace, Andra, 2000; Emerson et al., 1998; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).   This difference in reports of fear could be due to men actually not feeling afraid, only reporting they are not afraid, or experiencing less severe stalking behavior. It is difficult to parse the true reason. In general, men appear less willing to report fear due to socially desirable responding (Sutton Farrall, 2005) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993).   Also, Mmany male victims of stalking do not perceive any threat from their pursuers and therefore do not identify their experience as stalking (Tjaden, Thoennes, Allison, 2000; Sheridan , et al., 2002). Male victims of interpersonal violence report they are more likely to react with laughter than are women (Romito Grassi, 2007) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Likewise, Emerson, Ferris, and Gardners (1998) US community sample of victims revealed that men felt less vulnerable and threatened than did women. Men who do seek protection from their ex-girlfriends may experience informal social sanctions (Hall, 1998) and be treated with contempt or laughter by legal professionals (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2001). Accordingly, some have argued that the laws emphasis on fear reduces male prevalence rates (Tjaden et al., 2000) and may lead people to discount male victims who may actually need assistance from law enforcement (Baum et. al, 2009; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Emphasizing fear in stalking definitions may also affect womens reporting of intimate partner stalking. Stalking targeting women is primarily perpetrated by intimates (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), but women are paradoxically more afraid of strangers (Pain, 1996). For example, Dietz and Martin (2007) found that women were more afraid of strangers than of boyfriends. Also, Dunn (1999) demonstrated how a group of sorority women reported that they would feel anxious if a man suddenly showed up at their doorstep, but found it romantic and flattering if he showed up with flowers especially when he was . The women also felt more flattered byan ex-partner, s than byrather than a casual dates engaging in the same behaviors. Women may thus be more likely than men to minimize unwanted pursuit when it can be interpreted as romantic (Dunn, 1999; Emerson et al., 1998; Lee, 1998), while men may be more dismissive in general. Frequency counts of stalking thus may not tell the whole story of stalking vi ctimization. For example, general population samples in the UK and the US (Budd Mattinson, 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) find that women are victims of intimate partner stalking, while men are equally likely to be stalked by partners and acquaintances (exception: Purcell et al.s, 2001 Australian clinical sample); so while it is true that intimate partner stalking is the most prevalent type, there are somewhat differential experiences for women and men. Consequences Coping Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000; Haugaard Seri, 2004; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Stalking victims report a wide range of negative consequences, including psychological health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, PTSD symptomotology), physical health problems (e.g., disturbances in appetite and sleep, headaches, nausea, and damage from the perpetrator), economic losses (e.g., spending money on protective efforts, lost wages, and expenses), and social losses (e.g., losing touch with friends, getting unlisted phone numbers, reducing social activities) (see Bjerregaard, 2000; Centers for Disease Control, 2003; Davis et al., 2002; Dressing, Kuehner, Gass, 2005; Kamphuis Emmelkamp, 2001; Pathà © Mullen, 1997; Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001). Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000; Haugaard Seri, 2004; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Of these consequences, Davis et al. (2000) found that In addition to finding that female stalking victims had a higher risk of physical and mental health problems than male victims.   Further,, once again highlighting the importance of fear, Davis et al. (2000) found that greater fear was associated with greater health problems for women, but not for men. Also, Bjerregaard (2000) found that female victims of stalking were more likely to have been physically harmed by their stalker than were male victims, and reported greater impact on their emotional health.   It may seem as if one could draw the conclusion that women suffer greater health consequences (Jordan, 2009), but this conclusion is not without its exceptions (Pimlott-Kubiak Cortina, 2003; Wigman, 2009) Stal king is also comorbid with physical, sexual, and psychological abuse female stalking victims experience (Brewster, 2003; Coleman, 1997; Jordan, Wilcox, Pritchard, 2007; Logan, Leukefeld, Walker, 2000; Mechanic, Uhlmansick, Weaver, Resick, 2000; Spitzberg Rhea, 1999; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Among battered women, Mechanic and colleagues (Mechanic et al., 2000; Mechanic et al., 2002) have found that experiencing stalking contributes to higher levels of depression, fear, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than physical abuse alone. TRANSITION NEEDED.   Stalking victims take a variety of steps to protect themselves, including confronting the stalker (or having a third party do so), changing their home, school, or workplace, or seeking a protection order (Pathà © Mullen, 1997; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Some of the most common coping tactics for stalking victims involve a passive strategy, with tactics like ignoring or otherwise minimizing the problem (college students, Amar Alexy, 2010, Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Fremouw et al., 1997; Jason, Reichler, Easton, Neal, Wilson, 1984, self-identified victims in a Dutch community Kamphpuis, Emmelkamp, Bartak, 2003). Women are more likely than men to seek help in general. In particular, women are more likely than men to seek counseling and to file a protection order (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), and to take more security precautions, including avoiding people or places (Budd Mattinson, 2000), and to confide in a close friend or family member for help (Spitzberg et al. , 1998). In their study on unwanted pursuit in US college students, Cupach and Spitzberg (2000) found that women reported more interaction (e.g., yelled at the person), and protection (e.g., called the police), and less retaliation (e.g., threatened physical harm) than men. Both genders coped using evasion (e.g., ignored them). However, while men and women had different help-seeking patterns, the differences themselves were very small (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Spitzberg, 2002). In sum, gender differences emerge in more severe experiences, which usually involve a legally-defined fearful victim found in general population samples and those drawn from clinical or forensic populations (Baum, Catalano, Rand, Rose, 2009; Bjerregaard, 2000; Sheridan, Gillett, Davies, 2002 vs. Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). In contrast, studies employing college student samples that use a non-fear based definition often do not find such gender differences (Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2004; Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2002). Meta-analyses have shown that clinical and forensic samples do have higher prevalence rates than student or community samples; clinical and forensic samples also reveal a stronger pattern of male perpetrators and female victims (Spitzberg, 2002; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010).   We may conclude that there are meaningful gender differences in the ex perience of stalking, but some of these differences may be minimal (Spitzberg et al., 2010). Perpetrators When it comes to examining gender differences in stalking perpetration, we are confronted with some of the same issues.   It makes a difference whether we are examining stalking or, more broadly, unwanted pursuit behaviors.   It also matters which sample is being examined.   However, gender differences in rates of perpetration seem easier to come by.   The issue of whether men stalk more than women is subject to one of the problems that drive questions of victimization: which samples we study. The issue of whether stalking is operationalized using the requirement that victims feel fear is trickier. We cant use the same standard with perpetrators, who may not be able or willing to convey whether their victim was fearful. While we may assume that aggressive stalking behaviors like vandalism, threats, and physical harm are more severe than showing up unexpectedly or repeated phone calls, the meaning and impact of these behaviors may be similar. Depending upon the context of the behavior, even excessive declarations of love may lead to probable cause for fear (Emerson et al. 1998). However, as with victimization studies, males and females in some college student samples report no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Dutton Winstead, 2006; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). For example, Baum et al.s (2009) found in the data from a US national US survey revealed that approximately 60% of stalkers were male, 28% were female, and the rest were unable to be identified by their victim. Overall, Spitzberg and Cupachs (2003) meta-analysis found that males make up 82% of stalkers, while females represent 18% of stalkers. HoweverIn sum, the most recent meta-analysis of stalking and unwanted pursuit found that 23.90% of men have perpetrated stalking behavior, while compared to 11.92% of women did so (Spitzberg Cupach, 2010). However, as with victimization studies, some college student surveys reveal no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Dutton Winstead, 2006; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). College students frequently report engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors, with up to 99% doing at least one (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Between 30 and 36% of Davis et al.s (2000) US college student sample reported engaging in one to five acts, and 7 to 10% reported six or more. The most frequent behaviors are various forms of unwanted communication and showing up at work/home/school. Aggressive pursuit behaviors are more infrequent (Davis et al., 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000). In general, unwanted pursuit perpetration in college students involves similar numbers of male and female perpetrators, while stalking among general or clinical populations is predominantl y perpetrated by men (Allen, Swan, Raghavan, 2009; Baum et al., 2009; Budd Mattinson, 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). This pattern parallels the findings regarding dating and domestic violence perpetration. Like the pattern between unwanted pursuit and stalking, dating violence and domestic violence involve similar behaviors with differing prevalence rates, predictors of perpetration, and consequences for women and men (Archer, 2000; Bookwala, Frieze, Smith, Ryan, 1992). In this sense, less severe levels of unwanted pursuit or harassment may mirror Johnsons (1995) category of common couple violence, while more severe levels of stalking equal intimate terrorism (Johnson Ferraro, 2000). The debate of whether gender shapes the experience of IPV leads to research comparing the quantity of male and female victims and perpetrators, but also whether experiences are qualitatively different. In other words, are there gender differences in who perpetrators stalk; their choice of stalking behaviors, and their motivations? Types of Behaviors There is some evidence that women and men engage in slightly different individual stalking behaviors. In both forensic and college student samples in the US and Australia, men are more likely to make in-person contact (e.g., â€Å"approach† behavior; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000), to follow their victims or loiter (Purcell et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2010), and to inflict property damage (Purcell et al., 2010). Women, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in behaviors that do not confront the target face-to-face, such as making unwanted calls or leaving unwanted phone messages (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Purcell et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2010), spreading rumors, or employing others in harassing the victim (Purcell et al., 2010). These patterns are not universal, however, as Dutton and Winstead (2006)s US college student sample found that women reported more monitoring and physically hurting their targets than men. In terms of cyberstalking behaviors,. Burke, Wallen, Vail-Smith, and Knox (2011) found that US college student men were more likely than women to report experiencing and engaging in the use of spyware, photos, and cameras to monitor and pursue their partner (e.g., using GPS devices, web cams, and spyware to monitor their partner). In contrast, college student women were more likely to report excessive communication and checking behaviors (e.g., checking cell phone and e-mail histories, making excessive phone calls and e-mails, checking social networking sites, and using their partners passwords).. However, in a study on pursuit behaviors perpetrated on Facebook, Lyndon, Bonds-Raacke, and Cratty (in press) found no gender differences in US college students   in the three types of behaviors people perpetrated on Facebook to harass their ex-partner: covert provocation (20-54%; e.g., post poetry or lyrics in status updates to taunt ex-partner), venting (7-11%; e.g., write inappropriate or mean things about ex-partner on Facebook), and public harassment (3-10%; e.g., create a false Facebook profile of ex-partner). Thus far the ambiguity about whether gender differences exist in cyberpursuit appears to mirror the findings regarding unwanted pursuit behaviors for women and men, but we need more research on using technology to stalkcyberstalking, especially with perpetrators. One of the most pressing questions regarding stalking is when it might escalate into physically violent behaviors.   Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators of unwanted pursuit engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors than men (Dutton Winstead, 2006; Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). StillIn contrast, others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partnersEx-intimate stalkers, who are mostly male, are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009; Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001; Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006; Palrea, Zona , Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999; Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003; Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However, other college student samples and forensic samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). HoweverFor example, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999; Purcell et al., 2001; Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).   Specifically, both male and female stalkers can turn violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002).   Evidently, more research is needed to sort out whether gender is a useful predictor of extreme stalking and violence. Motivations and Violence While there are some differences in how men and women pursue, there also may be some differences in their motivations for doing so. Victims in general population studies often attribute the stalkers motivation to attempts to keep them in a relationship, as well as a desire to control the them (Budd Mattinson, 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Mullen and colleagues (1999) have classified their samples of clinical and forensic stalkers in Australia into five motivation groups: rejected, intimacy-seeker, incompetent suitor, resentful, and predatory types, but have not found consistent gender differences between the groups. Stalking behaviors appear to be motivated most commonly by intimacy (e.g., a desire for reconciliation and feelings of love), with the second most common motive being aggression retaliation (e.g., a desire for revenge; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). In fact, perpetrators often report both motives for reconciliation of a relationship and for revenge (Mullen, Pathà ©, Purcel l, Stuart, 1999; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). These Cclinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006). Gender differences in motivations for stalking have been noted in juvenile forensic samples. Juvenile female stalkers more likely to be motivated by bullying and retaliation whereas juvenile male stalkers were have been found to be motivated more by rejection and sexual predation (Purcell et al., 2010).   In a 2001 study of adult stalkers in Australia, Purcell and colleagues found that women were more likely to target professional acquaintances and less likely to target strangers than men. Nonetheless, the majority of female stalkers were still clearly motivated by the desire to establish intimacy with their target, whereas mens motivations were diverse, spreading across the five categories. Likewise, in Meloys (2003) study of 82 female stalkers from the US, Canada, and Australia, he found the female stalkers were more likely to be motivated by a desire to establish intimacy, whereas men were known to stalk to restore intimacy. Ultimately, Tthere is a large gap in stalking motivati on research, particularly using non-forensic samples.   Clinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006). Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors (Dutton Winstead, 2006; Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). Still others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partners are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009; Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001; Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, William s, 2006; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999; Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003; Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999; Purcell et al., 2001; Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).   Single surveys of Ccollege student samples ofabout unwanted pursuit and obsessive relational intrusion are the least likely to find fewgender differences in perpetration rates. However, meta-analyses and US and UK general population studies find that men are more likely to be stalking perpetrators than women, regardless of the victims gender (Baum et al., 2009; Budd Mattinson, 2000; Spitzberg, 2002; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).While the size of this gender difference varies, it is consistent across methodologies (Spitzberg Cupach, 2003). There are some gender differences in the types of stalking and cyberstalking perpetrationbehaviors e.g., men being more direct and women more indirect and in pursuers motives women being predominantly motivated by intimacy-seeking and men having a broader array of motives. However, we need more research on perpetration to better understand if gender is an important predictor to consider, especially with regard to the likelihood of escalation.   w ith a variety of samples and with better means of differentiating unwanted pursuit from stalking. Perceptions of stalking As attention to the problem of stalking has increased, so has public opinion been shaped.   However, there is not a true consensus in these opinions. Rather, people vary in how much they understand about stalking.   It can be unclear when the line between   normal relational pursuit and stalking is crossed (Dunn, 1999; Emerson et al., 1998; Lee, 1998; Sinclair Frieze, 2000, 2005). Perceptions can also diverge regarding multiple issues including: 1) which behaviors qualify as stalking, 2) how many behavior are enough to represent a â€Å"course of conduct,† 3) is stalking really serious, 4) what   perpetrator intent may have been, 5) whether and how we should incorporate victim fear levels to judge stalking severity, and 6) what is â€Å"real† stalking (e.g., stranger vs. acquaintance stalking). Within each of these issues, gender may influence the perceptions people hold, both lay persons and legal decision-makers. Stalking in the Eye of the Beholder: The Role of Perceiver Gender The literature is still mixed as to whether men and women differ in judgments to use a label of stalking. Some researchers report that men and women do not differ in terms of which behaviors qualify as stalking (e.g., Kinkade, Burns, Fuentes, 2005; Phillips et al., 2004, in Experiment 1; Sheridan Davies, 2001; Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001; Sheridan et al., 2002; Sheridan, Gillet, Davies, Blaauw, Patel, 2003). Others have found Literature Review of Gender and Stalking Literature Review of Gender and Stalking An Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking Research Stalking has been the subject of empirical examination for a little over 20 years. Interest in stalking both empirical and public has increased substantially within the last decade (see Figure 1).   A PsycINFO search of the first decade of stalking research yields only 74 hits. In contrast, the year 2000 marked an upswing of serious investigation with the publication of the first special issue on stalking (Frieze Davis, 2000). There were 56 publications on stalking in 2000 alone and over 600 publications on the topic published between 2000 and 2010.   The research on stalking has examined predictors of perpetration, consequences of victimization, and public perceptions of stalking. Within each of these domains, one of the lingering questions has been: what role does gender play in stalking? Accordingly, this special issue is intended to contribute to the literature by using gender as a focus point in 1) applying new theoretical perspectives to the study of stalking perpetration (Davis, Swan, Gambone, this issue; Duntley Buss, this issue), 2) extending our knowledge of women and mens (Sheridan Lyndon, this issue; Thompson, Dennison, Stewart, this issue) stalking experiences, and 3) furthering the study of perceptions of stalking (Cass Rosay, this issue; Dunlap, Hodell, Golding, Wasarhaley, this issue; Sinclair, this issue; Yanowitz Yanowitz, this issue). To place this special issue in context of the current state of knowledge on gender and stalking, we will review the state of the current research on examining the role of gender with regard to stalking victimization, perpetration, and the lay and legal perceptions of stalking. We will conclude with a summary of how each of the articles included herein contribute to our knowledge about the role of gender in stalking research. However, it is important to start with clarifying what is meant by the term â€Å"stalking.† The model federal anti-stalking law in the US legally defines stalking as â€Å"a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear† (National Criminal Justice Association Project, 1993, p. 43-44).   Legal definitions differ across US states, but they tend to have three characteristics: 1) a pattern or â€Å"course of conduct† 2) of unwanted or intrusive harassing behaviors that 3) induces fear of bodily harm or substantial emotional distress in the target (Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010). Additional terminology has been used in stalking research to discuss unwanted attention, particularly from a romantic pursuer, that does not meet the fear or â€Å"substantial† distress criteria of anti-stalking laws. Alternative labels for these unwanted behaviors engaged in during purs uit of a romantic relationship include â€Å"unwanted pursuit† (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Palarea, Cohen, Rohling, 2000), â€Å"pre-stalking† (Emerson, Ferris, Gardner, 1998), â€Å"obsessive relational intrusion† (ORI: Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2004), harassment, or unwanted â€Å"courtship persistence† (Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Whether gender differences may emerge, particularly in perpetration and victimization statistics, may depend on whether the researcher is examining â€Å"stalking† or â€Å"unwanted pursuit.†Ã‚   In fact, as will be discussed throughout this paper, much of the debate about gender differences is largely due to two variables: 1) how stalking is operationalized and 2) what sample is examined. We turn to these issues, and others, first starting with our review of the stalking victimization literature.   Note, our focus for the duration of this paper is on the dominant form of stalking; stalking that occurs within a relational context. Victims One of the questions surrounding gender differences in stalking research is whether women are more likely to be victims of stalking than men. Statistics clearly indicate that the majority of stalking cases often follows the rejection of an intimate relationship (Baum et al., 2009; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Historically, intimate aggression (e.g., domestic violence, acquaintance rape) has been perceived as synonymous with violence against women because it was believed that the majority of intimate aggression targeted women.   However, this belief that victims of intimate aggression are disproportionately female has been controversial (see Archer, 2000). Likewise, we find that the assertion that stalking victims are predominantly women is not without its controversy.   In the first US national study of stalking victimization, Tjaden and Thoennes (1998) reported that 8% of women and 1.1% of men qualify qualified as stalking victims when the definition was limited to those who are were extremely afraid. The victimization rate climbs climbed to 13% of women and 2.2% of men when somewhat afraid is was used. Thus, a gender difference was still quite apparent when fear was a criterion. In contrast, the British Crime Survey (Budd Mattinson, 2000), which did not require any experiences of fear, reported that 4% of women and 1.7% of men were victims of persistent and unwanted attention. In a more recent US national survey, Baum et al. (2009) found that more stalking victims were women than men when using the legal definition that includes victim fear. In contrast, no gender difference emerged in harassment victimization, which does not include the fear requirement. Further, all of these studies show that women are more likely to be stalked by a prior intim ate than men, who are equally likely to be stalked by acquaintances or intimates.   When focusing on unwanted pursuits, which can include stalking, in the relational contextS studies examining unwanted pursuit have to grapple with definitional issues as well as issues of sample. Studies of unwanted pursuit and ORI are primarily conducted among American college students and have often found few or small gender differences in rates of unwanted pursuit victimization. Among US college students, women and men who rejected a romantic relationship did not differ in their reports of experiencing unwanted pursuit behaviors, such as following and threats of physical assault (e.g., Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2000; Spitzberg, Nicastro, Cousins, 1998). When differences are found, they may be minimal.Overall, Spitzberg et al.s (2010) latest meta-analysis of US college students who experienced persistent pursuit found that women were 55% more likely to have been pursued than men. Comparing these statistics with national statistic s which find women 3-7 times more likely to be stalked, a difference of .55 seems minimal.   Clearly how one concludes whether someone is a victim of stalking depends not only on how one asks the question (requiring fear or not) but who one is asking (college sample vs. national sample). Yet, it seems safe to conclude that women do outnumber men when it comes to victimization rates. To Fear or Not to Fear Where consistent gender differences have been found is that women are more likely to view unwanted pursuit as threatening (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Spitzberg et al., 2010). The inclusion of fear appears to decrease prevalence rates for men, as men are less likely to report fear than are women (Bjerregaard, 2000; Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Davis, Ace, Andra, 2000; Emerson et al., 1998; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).   This difference in reports of fear could be due to men actually not feeling afraid, only reporting they are not afraid, or experiencing less severe stalking behavior. It is difficult to parse the true reason. In general, men appear less willing to report fear due to socially desirable responding (Sutton Farrall, 2005) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993).   Also, Mmany male victims of stalking do not perceive any threat from their pursuers and therefore do not identify their experience as stalking (Tjaden, Thoennes, Allison, 2000; Sheridan , et al., 2002). Male victims of interpersonal violence report they are more likely to react with laughter than are women (Romito Grassi, 2007) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Likewise, Emerson, Ferris, and Gardners (1998) US community sample of victims revealed that men felt less vulnerable and threatened than did women. Men who do seek protection from their ex-girlfriends may experience informal social sanctions (Hall, 1998) and be treated with contempt or laughter by legal professionals (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2001). Accordingly, some have argued that the laws emphasis on fear reduces male prevalence rates (Tjaden et al., 2000) and may lead people to discount male victims who may actually need assistance from law enforcement (Baum et. al, 2009; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Emphasizing fear in stalking definitions may also affect womens reporting of intimate partner stalking. Stalking targeting women is primarily perpetrated by intimates (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), but women are paradoxically more afraid of strangers (Pain, 1996). For example, Dietz and Martin (2007) found that women were more afraid of strangers than of boyfriends. Also, Dunn (1999) demonstrated how a group of sorority women reported that they would feel anxious if a man suddenly showed up at their doorstep, but found it romantic and flattering if he showed up with flowers especially when he was . The women also felt more flattered byan ex-partner, s than byrather than a casual dates engaging in the same behaviors. Women may thus be more likely than men to minimize unwanted pursuit when it can be interpreted as romantic (Dunn, 1999; Emerson et al., 1998; Lee, 1998), while men may be more dismissive in general. Frequency counts of stalking thus may not tell the whole story of stalking vi ctimization. For example, general population samples in the UK and the US (Budd Mattinson, 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) find that women are victims of intimate partner stalking, while men are equally likely to be stalked by partners and acquaintances (exception: Purcell et al.s, 2001 Australian clinical sample); so while it is true that intimate partner stalking is the most prevalent type, there are somewhat differential experiences for women and men. Consequences Coping Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000; Haugaard Seri, 2004; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Stalking victims report a wide range of negative consequences, including psychological health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, PTSD symptomotology), physical health problems (e.g., disturbances in appetite and sleep, headaches, nausea, and damage from the perpetrator), economic losses (e.g., spending money on protective efforts, lost wages, and expenses), and social losses (e.g., losing touch with friends, getting unlisted phone numbers, reducing social activities) (see Bjerregaard, 2000; Centers for Disease Control, 2003; Davis et al., 2002; Dressing, Kuehner, Gass, 2005; Kamphuis Emmelkamp, 2001; Pathà © Mullen, 1997; Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001). Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000; Haugaard Seri, 2004; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Of these consequences, Davis et al. (2000) found that In addition to finding that female stalking victims had a higher risk of physical and mental health problems than male victims.   Further,, once again highlighting the importance of fear, Davis et al. (2000) found that greater fear was associated with greater health problems for women, but not for men. Also, Bjerregaard (2000) found that female victims of stalking were more likely to have been physically harmed by their stalker than were male victims, and reported greater impact on their emotional health.   It may seem as if one could draw the conclusion that women suffer greater health consequences (Jordan, 2009), but this conclusion is not without its exceptions (Pimlott-Kubiak Cortina, 2003; Wigman, 2009) Stal king is also comorbid with physical, sexual, and psychological abuse female stalking victims experience (Brewster, 2003; Coleman, 1997; Jordan, Wilcox, Pritchard, 2007; Logan, Leukefeld, Walker, 2000; Mechanic, Uhlmansick, Weaver, Resick, 2000; Spitzberg Rhea, 1999; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Among battered women, Mechanic and colleagues (Mechanic et al., 2000; Mechanic et al., 2002) have found that experiencing stalking contributes to higher levels of depression, fear, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than physical abuse alone. TRANSITION NEEDED.   Stalking victims take a variety of steps to protect themselves, including confronting the stalker (or having a third party do so), changing their home, school, or workplace, or seeking a protection order (Pathà © Mullen, 1997; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Some of the most common coping tactics for stalking victims involve a passive strategy, with tactics like ignoring or otherwise minimizing the problem (college students, Amar Alexy, 2010, Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Fremouw et al., 1997; Jason, Reichler, Easton, Neal, Wilson, 1984, self-identified victims in a Dutch community Kamphpuis, Emmelkamp, Bartak, 2003). Women are more likely than men to seek help in general. In particular, women are more likely than men to seek counseling and to file a protection order (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), and to take more security precautions, including avoiding people or places (Budd Mattinson, 2000), and to confide in a close friend or family member for help (Spitzberg et al. , 1998). In their study on unwanted pursuit in US college students, Cupach and Spitzberg (2000) found that women reported more interaction (e.g., yelled at the person), and protection (e.g., called the police), and less retaliation (e.g., threatened physical harm) than men. Both genders coped using evasion (e.g., ignored them). However, while men and women had different help-seeking patterns, the differences themselves were very small (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Spitzberg, 2002). In sum, gender differences emerge in more severe experiences, which usually involve a legally-defined fearful victim found in general population samples and those drawn from clinical or forensic populations (Baum, Catalano, Rand, Rose, 2009; Bjerregaard, 2000; Sheridan, Gillett, Davies, 2002 vs. Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). In contrast, studies employing college student samples that use a non-fear based definition often do not find such gender differences (Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2004; Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2002). Meta-analyses have shown that clinical and forensic samples do have higher prevalence rates than student or community samples; clinical and forensic samples also reveal a stronger pattern of male perpetrators and female victims (Spitzberg, 2002; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010).   We may conclude that there are meaningful gender differences in the ex perience of stalking, but some of these differences may be minimal (Spitzberg et al., 2010). Perpetrators When it comes to examining gender differences in stalking perpetration, we are confronted with some of the same issues.   It makes a difference whether we are examining stalking or, more broadly, unwanted pursuit behaviors.   It also matters which sample is being examined.   However, gender differences in rates of perpetration seem easier to come by.   The issue of whether men stalk more than women is subject to one of the problems that drive questions of victimization: which samples we study. The issue of whether stalking is operationalized using the requirement that victims feel fear is trickier. We cant use the same standard with perpetrators, who may not be able or willing to convey whether their victim was fearful. While we may assume that aggressive stalking behaviors like vandalism, threats, and physical harm are more severe than showing up unexpectedly or repeated phone calls, the meaning and impact of these behaviors may be similar. Depending upon the context of the behavior, even excessive declarations of love may lead to probable cause for fear (Emerson et al. 1998). However, as with victimization studies, males and females in some college student samples report no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Dutton Winstead, 2006; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). For example, Baum et al.s (2009) found in the data from a US national US survey revealed that approximately 60% of stalkers were male, 28% were female, and the rest were unable to be identified by their victim. Overall, Spitzberg and Cupachs (2003) meta-analysis found that males make up 82% of stalkers, while females represent 18% of stalkers. HoweverIn sum, the most recent meta-analysis of stalking and unwanted pursuit found that 23.90% of men have perpetrated stalking behavior, while compared to 11.92% of women did so (Spitzberg Cupach, 2010). However, as with victimization studies, some college student surveys reveal no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000; Dutton Winstead, 2006; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). College students frequently report engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors, with up to 99% doing at least one (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Between 30 and 36% of Davis et al.s (2000) US college student sample reported engaging in one to five acts, and 7 to 10% reported six or more. The most frequent behaviors are various forms of unwanted communication and showing up at work/home/school. Aggressive pursuit behaviors are more infrequent (Davis et al., 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000). In general, unwanted pursuit perpetration in college students involves similar numbers of male and female perpetrators, while stalking among general or clinical populations is predominantl y perpetrated by men (Allen, Swan, Raghavan, 2009; Baum et al., 2009; Budd Mattinson, 2000; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). This pattern parallels the findings regarding dating and domestic violence perpetration. Like the pattern between unwanted pursuit and stalking, dating violence and domestic violence involve similar behaviors with differing prevalence rates, predictors of perpetration, and consequences for women and men (Archer, 2000; Bookwala, Frieze, Smith, Ryan, 1992). In this sense, less severe levels of unwanted pursuit or harassment may mirror Johnsons (1995) category of common couple violence, while more severe levels of stalking equal intimate terrorism (Johnson Ferraro, 2000). The debate of whether gender shapes the experience of IPV leads to research comparing the quantity of male and female victims and perpetrators, but also whether experiences are qualitatively different. In other words, are there gender differences in who perpetrators stalk; their choice of stalking behaviors, and their motivations? Types of Behaviors There is some evidence that women and men engage in slightly different individual stalking behaviors. In both forensic and college student samples in the US and Australia, men are more likely to make in-person contact (e.g., â€Å"approach† behavior; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Sinclair Frieze, 2000), to follow their victims or loiter (Purcell et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2010), and to inflict property damage (Purcell et al., 2010). Women, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in behaviors that do not confront the target face-to-face, such as making unwanted calls or leaving unwanted phone messages (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Purcell et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2010), spreading rumors, or employing others in harassing the victim (Purcell et al., 2010). These patterns are not universal, however, as Dutton and Winstead (2006)s US college student sample found that women reported more monitoring and physically hurting their targets than men. In terms of cyberstalking behaviors,. Burke, Wallen, Vail-Smith, and Knox (2011) found that US college student men were more likely than women to report experiencing and engaging in the use of spyware, photos, and cameras to monitor and pursue their partner (e.g., using GPS devices, web cams, and spyware to monitor their partner). In contrast, college student women were more likely to report excessive communication and checking behaviors (e.g., checking cell phone and e-mail histories, making excessive phone calls and e-mails, checking social networking sites, and using their partners passwords).. However, in a study on pursuit behaviors perpetrated on Facebook, Lyndon, Bonds-Raacke, and Cratty (in press) found no gender differences in US college students   in the three types of behaviors people perpetrated on Facebook to harass their ex-partner: covert provocation (20-54%; e.g., post poetry or lyrics in status updates to taunt ex-partner), venting (7-11%; e.g., write inappropriate or mean things about ex-partner on Facebook), and public harassment (3-10%; e.g., create a false Facebook profile of ex-partner). Thus far the ambiguity about whether gender differences exist in cyberpursuit appears to mirror the findings regarding unwanted pursuit behaviors for women and men, but we need more research on using technology to stalkcyberstalking, especially with perpetrators. One of the most pressing questions regarding stalking is when it might escalate into physically violent behaviors.   Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators of unwanted pursuit engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors than men (Dutton Winstead, 2006; Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). StillIn contrast, others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partnersEx-intimate stalkers, who are mostly male, are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009; Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001; Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006; Palrea, Zona , Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999; Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003; Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However, other college student samples and forensic samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). HoweverFor example, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999; Purcell et al., 2001; Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).   Specifically, both male and female stalkers can turn violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002).   Evidently, more research is needed to sort out whether gender is a useful predictor of extreme stalking and violence. Motivations and Violence While there are some differences in how men and women pursue, there also may be some differences in their motivations for doing so. Victims in general population studies often attribute the stalkers motivation to attempts to keep them in a relationship, as well as a desire to control the them (Budd Mattinson, 2000; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Mullen and colleagues (1999) have classified their samples of clinical and forensic stalkers in Australia into five motivation groups: rejected, intimacy-seeker, incompetent suitor, resentful, and predatory types, but have not found consistent gender differences between the groups. Stalking behaviors appear to be motivated most commonly by intimacy (e.g., a desire for reconciliation and feelings of love), with the second most common motive being aggression retaliation (e.g., a desire for revenge; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). In fact, perpetrators often report both motives for reconciliation of a relationship and for revenge (Mullen, Pathà ©, Purcel l, Stuart, 1999; Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). These Cclinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006). Gender differences in motivations for stalking have been noted in juvenile forensic samples. Juvenile female stalkers more likely to be motivated by bullying and retaliation whereas juvenile male stalkers were have been found to be motivated more by rejection and sexual predation (Purcell et al., 2010).   In a 2001 study of adult stalkers in Australia, Purcell and colleagues found that women were more likely to target professional acquaintances and less likely to target strangers than men. Nonetheless, the majority of female stalkers were still clearly motivated by the desire to establish intimacy with their target, whereas mens motivations were diverse, spreading across the five categories. Likewise, in Meloys (2003) study of 82 female stalkers from the US, Canada, and Australia, he found the female stalkers were more likely to be motivated by a desire to establish intimacy, whereas men were known to stalk to restore intimacy. Ultimately, Tthere is a large gap in stalking motivati on research, particularly using non-forensic samples.   Clinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006). Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Pathà ©, Mullen, 2004; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a); half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors (Dutton Winstead, 2006; Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of   stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004; Sinclair Frieze, 2002). Still others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partners are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009; Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001; Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, William s, 2006; Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999; Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003; Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999; Purcell et al., 2001; Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).   Single surveys of Ccollege student samples ofabout unwanted pursuit and obsessive relational intrusion are the least likely to find fewgender differences in perpetration rates. However, meta-analyses and US and UK general population studies find that men are more likely to be stalking perpetrators than women, regardless of the victims gender (Baum et al., 2009; Budd Mattinson, 2000; Spitzberg, 2002; Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).While the size of this gender difference varies, it is consistent across methodologies (Spitzberg Cupach, 2003). There are some gender differences in the types of stalking and cyberstalking perpetrationbehaviors e.g., men being more direct and women more indirect and in pursuers motives women being predominantly motivated by intimacy-seeking and men having a broader array of motives. However, we need more research on perpetration to better understand if gender is an important predictor to consider, especially with regard to the likelihood of escalation.   w ith a variety of samples and with better means of differentiating unwanted pursuit from stalking. Perceptions of stalking As attention to the problem of stalking has increased, so has public opinion been shaped.   However, there is not a true consensus in these opinions. Rather, people vary in how much they understand about stalking.   It can be unclear when the line between   normal relational pursuit and stalking is crossed (Dunn, 1999; Emerson et al., 1998; Lee, 1998; Sinclair Frieze, 2000, 2005). Perceptions can also diverge regarding multiple issues including: 1) which behaviors qualify as stalking, 2) how many behavior are enough to represent a â€Å"course of conduct,† 3) is stalking really serious, 4) what   perpetrator intent may have been, 5) whether and how we should incorporate victim fear levels to judge stalking severity, and 6) what is â€Å"real† stalking (e.g., stranger vs. acquaintance stalking). Within each of these issues, gender may influence the perceptions people hold, both lay persons and legal decision-makers. Stalking in the Eye of the Beholder: The Role of Perceiver Gender The literature is still mixed as to whether men and women differ in judgments to use a label of stalking. Some researchers report that men and women do not differ in terms of which behaviors qualify as stalking (e.g., Kinkade, Burns, Fuentes, 2005; Phillips et al., 2004, in Experiment 1; Sheridan Davies, 2001; Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001; Sheridan et al., 2002; Sheridan, Gillet, Davies, Blaauw, Patel, 2003). Others have found